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Substance Addiction: A Disease, Not a Matter of Free Will

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by Zijun Zhou, July 27, 2025

In the 21st century, social technology and cultural advances have brought new challenges. One of the most serious is drug addiction, now a major public health and social issue. The latest statistics from the Addiction Group (2024) show that nearly 50 million Americans suffer from a substance addiction or substance use disorder (SUD) each year, but less than 10% receive appropriate treatment. Further, more than 70% of alcohol-dependent people have never sought professional help. Addiction is also deeply intertwined with broader mental health challenges, including a significantly elevated risk for suicidality. While not all of the 13 million adults and 3.4 million adolescents in the United States affected by suicidal thoughts each year necessarily have a diagnosed substance use disorder, research robustly demonstrates that individuals with SUDs face a substantially increased risk of suicide mortality (Sugue, 2024). For example, a large case-control study conducted across eight integrated healthcare systems in the United States found that all categories of substance use disorders, including alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use disorders, were significantly associated with an increased risk of suicide mortality, even after controlling for comorbid mental health and physical health conditions. This methodological rigor is critical, as it provides strong evidence that Substance Use Disorder is not merely an epiphenomenon or symptom of other psychiatric conditions, but rather a powerful and independent driver of suicide risk. This finding offers a solid evidentiary foundation for the article’s central thesis: that addiction is itself a primary pathological process. The study emphasized that the risk is particularly pronounced for individuals with multiple substance use disorders, and that women face a relatively higher risk compared to men (Lynch et al., 2020). This strong association further underscores that substance use disorders likely contribute significantly to suicide risk, particularly among individuals experiencing suicidal ideation and broader mental health crises. Such findings emphasize the importance of addressing addiction as a critical public health concern.

Despite the mounting scientific evidence, a consensus on the nature of addiction remains elusive in both academic and public spheres. A landmark event in this debate occurred in 2014, when the esteemed journal Nature published an editorial, Animal farm, which claimed that the view of addiction as a brain disease was not particularly controversial, at least among scientists (Animal Farm, 2014). This assertion, however, provoked a swift and strong backlash, culminating in a letter signed by 94 international addiction scholars who contested this one-dimensional portrayal. They argued that substance abuse cannot be divorced from its social, psychological, cultural, political, legal and environmental contexts: it is not simply a consequence of brain malfunction. This public debate highlights the complexity of the issue. Therefore, this article’s support for the disease model is not intended to dismiss these vital critiques. Rather, it is to argue that, while fully acknowledging the importance of these psychosocial and environmental factors, the neuroadaptive changes that occur in the brain during addiction are so profound, pathological, and dysfunctional that the disease framework remains the most robust scientific model for understanding its compulsive nature and for guiding effective intervention.

Addiction is a chronic disease characterized by drug seeking and use that is compulsive or difficult to control despite harmful consequences (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2018). Unlike the traditional concept of addiction as a weakness of will or an individual’s choice, the occurrence and development of addiction are driven by complex neurobiological mechanisms. These neurobiological mechanisms fundamentally undermine voluntary control by profoundly restructuring the brain’s reward system. This restructuring pathologically heightens the motivational value of the drug while diminishing the perceived value of natural rewards. As a result, the individual experiences intense, cue-driven cravings that can overwhelm rational thought. This is compounded by severe disturbances in emotion and stress regulation that create a deeply negative affective state during abstinence, driving a powerful compulsive need to use the drug to escape from this distress. These issues are further exacerbated by significant impairments in executive function, which compromise the prefrontal cortex’s ability to control impulses and weigh long-term consequences, weakening the brain’s inhibitory control system against relapse. The clinical manifestations of addiction are usually accompanied by tolerance and withdrawal symptoms, and its essence is continuous and repeated drug seeking and use. Tolerance and withdrawal symptoms may be present, and the essential elements include continuous and repeated drug seeking at the cost of normal rewards. It is not the result of one’s own choice.

Critics often argue that addiction is not a real disease because they believe that the brain is designed to change throughout life naturally. They support this by pointing out that the growth stages of children and adolescents and learning throughout adulthood are based on similar changes in the cerebral cortex and limbic system (Lewis, 2017). However, this view ignores the changes in brain structure and function that addiction demonstrably causes, which form the core basis for defining it as a disease. These extensive alterations exemplify an abnormal state affecting brain structure and function, accompanied by clear behavioral symptoms, consistent with established medical criteria for a disease (National Cancer Institute, 2011). Indeed, addiction manifests precisely through such pathological changes. For example, a defining feature of drug abuse is the pathological ‘hijacking’ of the brain’s natural reward system and emotional regulation circuits. This hijacking itself represents a fundamental disruption of normal brain function, an abnormal state directly initiated when all addictive drugs drastically increase dopamine release in key brain regions. Dopamine is the central neurotransmitter of the brain’s reward system and is primarily responsible for regulating feelings of pleasure, motivation, and reinforcement learning. However, a drug-induced surge in dopamine is not a physiological adaptation like normal learning, but rather an extreme and abnormal neurochemical event that profoundly alters neural circuits. In addictive behaviors, drugs cause a sharp rise in dopamine levels in key regions such as the nucleus accumbens and the striatum by stimulating dopamine neurons. This abnormal dopamine release alters neural circuits deep in the brain from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens. Further, it extends to regions such as the limbic system and orbitofrontal cortex (Leshner, 1997). Together, these regions regulate emotions, decision-making, and impulse control. Unlike the gradual changes of natural learning, this overwhelming, drug-induced flood of dopamine fundamentally corrupts the brain’s decision-making architecture, which is a hallmark of a disease state.

While these changes begin with the limbic system, the effects of addiction extend further to higher-order regulatory regions. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) in drug addicts exhibits significant functional impairments.The behavior of people with an addiction is highly similar to that of patients with VMPC damage: both groups often deny or are unaware of their problems (Bechara, 2005). Moreover, when faced with a choice that offers an immediate reward, they tend to ignore the possible long-term negative consequences, including the loss of their job, family, or even reputation. VMPC damage usually includes the medial parts of Brodmann Area (BA) 25, lower 24, 32, 11, 12, and 10. Although patients may retain normal intelligence, memory, and other cognitive functions, they show significant deficits in emotional and social behavior and long-term decision-making abilities, which is highly consistent with the characteristics of drug addiction (Bechara, 2005). Compared with non-addicts, drug addicts (such as cocaine-dependent individuals) have significantly lower resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) between the frontal hemispheres. This change is particularly pronounced in areas related to the dorsal attention network, including bilateral prefrontal, medial prefrontal, and posterior parietal regions (Kelly et al., 2011). This weakening of RSFC reflects the persistent impairments in executive function, attention control, and behavioral regulation in people with an addiction. This not only makes them more prone to relapse in the face of environmental cues (for example, encountering people who used to take drugs together, going to places associated with past drug use, or seeing items and equipment related to drugs), but also weakens motivation for long-term goals and impulse control (Mennis et al., 2016).This phenomenon reveals that addiction is not only a functional abnormality of a single neural circuit but also the result of impaired collaboration among multiple brain regions.

From a neurobiological perspective, the development of addiction can be divided into three recurring stages: Binge and Intoxication, Withdrawal and Negative Affect, and Preoccupation and Anticipation. This cyclical model, driven by profound neural adaptations within specific neural circuits, clearly reveals the progressive pathophysiological process of addiction as a chronic, relapsing brain disease, rather than a simple issue of willpower or choice. Each stage involves the activation of specific neurobiological circuits and is accompanied by clinical and behavioral characteristics (Koob & Volkow, 2016; Volkow, Koob, & McLellan, 2022). Exploring each of these stages in turn reveals how the disease progresses and systematically hijacks the brain’s circuitry.

During the Binge and Intoxication stage, addictive substances significantly increase dopamine levels by triggering their release in the brain’s reward circuitry. This process bypasses natural reward mechanisms, directly stimulating dopamine transmission in key regions such as the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex, resulting in reward effects from drug use that far exceed those of natural stimuli (Kalivas & O’Brien, 2008). This direct and overwhelming stimulation of the reward pathway represents an initial pathological transformation and an early manifestation of the disease state of addiction, as it disrupts the brain’s normal regulatory processes, disproportionately amplifying the incentive value of drugs. Dopamine signaling not only reinforces the immediate response to drugs but also links drug use to specific environmental cues through conditioned learning. As usage frequency increases, dopamine cells gradually become less responsive to the reward but more sensitive to cues predicting the reward, thereby intensifying drug cravings (Koob & Volkow, 2016). This neural adaptation marks a pathological hijacking, reflecting addiction as a disease where patients’ behavior is increasingly driven by external cues rather than autonomous choice. This neural adaptation marks a pathological hijacking, reflecting addiction as a disease where patients’ behavior is increasingly driven by external cues rather than autonomous choice, thereby setting the stage for the painful withdrawal of the second act.

The Withdrawal and Negative Affect stage is characterized by a critical shift from reward-system dominance to the recruitment of brain stress and antireward systems. This transition is initiated by counteradaptive mechanisms, specifically the opponent process, a neurobiological response that counteracts the drug’s initial rewarding effects. In addition, this process becomes dysregulated; it fails to return to its homeostatic baseline and instead establishes a new, pathological state known as allostasis (Koob & Le Moal, 2008). This allostatic state represents a chronic deviation of the brain’s reward set point, sustained by the extended amygdala’s overactivation of the antireward system (Koob & Le Moal, 2008). The hyperactivity of this system, mediated by neurotransmitters like corticotropin-releasing factor, is responsible for the profound negative emotional states of withdrawal, such as anxiety and irritability (Volkow, Koob, & McLellan, 2022). Consequently, the motivation for drug use is fundamentally altered. It shifts from a volitional act to seek pleasure to a compulsive behavior driven by the need to temporarily alleviate this persistent, aversive internal state (Koob & Volkow, 2016). This shift from choice to compulsion is a core pathological feature of the disease. At this juncture, the motivation for drug use has fundamentally shifted from chasing pleasure to escaping pain—a critical turning point that marks the transition from voluntary use to compulsion.

Regarding the Preoccupation and Anticipation stage, its core feature is dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex and its associated circuits. This stage is primarily associated with significant impairment in executive function, including reduced impulse control, self-regulation, and decision-making abilities. Due to abnormal regulation of dopamine and glutamate signaling in the prefrontal cortex, addicts struggle to resist impulses when exposed to drug-related cues. Additionally, prolonged drug use has led to significant neuroplastic changes in the brain. These changes are concentrated at the molecular level, such as the accumulation of deltaFosB and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). These molecular-level changes not only reinforce compulsive drug-taking behavior but also significantly increase the risk of relapse (Kalivas & O’Brien, 2008). Research has shown that short-term withdrawal (e.g., 12 hours) significantly increases an individual’s reactivity to cues, accompanied by enhanced activation of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). This change is associated with intense craving and withdrawal symptoms (Goldstein & Volkow, 2011; Volkow, Koob & McLellan, 2022). The effects of long-term abstinence on prefrontal cortex activity highlight the complexity of neuroadaptive changes in addiction. While some studies suggest reduced activity in certain prefrontal regions during prolonged abstinence, possibly due to adaptive behavioral strategies, the overarching pattern remains one of significant dysfunction. Such complexity underscores the difficulty addicts face in resisting drug-related cues, reinforcing the importance of understanding impaired cortical function in the chronic relapse cycle of addiction. Due to impaired executive function in the prefrontal cortex, addicts often struggle with decision-making to inhibit drug use, leading to a vicious cycle of repeated drug use. This significant functional impairment of the prefrontal cortex, including imbalances in neurochemical signaling and persistent molecular-level adaptive changes, constitutes the core pathological manifestation of addiction as a chronic brain disease. A key example of such a change is the accumulation of the protein deltaFosB, which acts as a long-lasting molecular switch that structurally rewires neural circuits to reinforce compulsive drug-seeking (Nestler et al., 2001). It directly undermines an individual’s ability to engage in rational assessment, inhibit inappropriate impulses, and maintain long-term goals, rendering self-control exceptionally challenging at the physiological level, thereby contributing to the chronic nature of the disease and its high relapse rate. At this point, the brain’s accelerator (the craving system) is stuck on full throttle, while the brakes (executive function) have failed, trapping the individual in a cycle of relapse that is physiologically difficult to escape.

The profound impact of environmental and social factors on the neurobiologically vulnerable individual—as underscored by the disease model of addiction—is vividly illustrated by the case of Vietnam War veterans. Vietnam War veterans experienced widespread heroin addiction due to the high levels of stress and availability of drugs in the war environment. However, after returning home, many were able to quit relatively successfully due to the disappearance of the war environment and related cues (Leshner, 1997). This case powerfully demonstrates the significant influence of social and environmental factors on addiction, highlighting the need for holistic treatment strategies that address not only neurobiology but also the psychological context in which addiction occurs.

While the end of the war created a positive environmental shift for many, more recently, the COVID-19 pandemic provided a stark counterexample of how social upheaval can catastrophically worsen the addiction crisis. In the wake of the pandemic, U.S. drug overdose deaths surged dramatically, increasing by over 30% in 2020 and surpassing 106,000 in 2021, with opioid-related fatalities showing the most significant rise (Tanz et al., 2022; Spencer et al., 2022). This trend was starkly illustrated at the state level; in New York, a recent report by the New York State Office of the State Comptroller (OSC) found that the increase in opioid overdose deaths in New York between 2019 and 2021 was approximately 68% (OSC, 2022). A perfect storm of factors drove this crisis. On one hand, the pandemic created a widespread mental health crisis, increasing feelings of anxiety, loneliness, and despair, which fueled the demand for substances. On the other hand, lockdowns and social distancing measures severely disrupted access to treatment and recovery support services, leaving vulnerable individuals isolated (Hulsey et al., 2020). This was compounded by an increasingly toxic illicit drug supply, where lethal synthetic opioids like fentanyl became more prevalent (Melamed et al., 2022). This modern-day example powerfully underscores the complex interplay between the neurobiological disease of addiction and large-scale environmental stressors. These cases powerfully illustrate a central tenet of the modern disease model: the neurobiological vulnerabilities established by the disease process are dramatically amplified or mitigated by the external environment. A purely neurobiological focus, therefore, is insufficient. A truly comprehensive strategy must be bimodal, simultaneously targeting the internal pathophysiology of the brain and the external social context of the individual.

Viewing addiction as a disease shapes healthcare policies, treatment approaches, and social attitudes, directly influencing societal outcomes. This disease-oriented perspective provides a clear scientific basis for developing effective treatment protocols, reducing stigma towards individuals with addiction, and guiding evidence-based policy-making. For instance, it supports legislative changes such as improved insurance coverage for addiction treatment and shifts from punitive measures toward rehabilitation. Economically, addiction imposes significant burdens on society; the annual social cost of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug abuse in the United States reaches approximately $700 billion (Volkow et al., 2022). This figure is projected to rise due to the ongoing opioid crisis, with opioid-related disorders and overdoses alone accounting for around $1.5 trillion in losses in 2020, including healthcare expenditures, lost productivity, and criminal justice expenses (Lines, 2024). Additionally, over 25% of arrests in the United States involve drug-related offenses (Lines, 2024). Addressing addiction comprehensively as a public health issue, then, is both economically and socially essential.

From a policy and legislative perspective, treating addiction as a disease has driven changes in healthcare and insurance systems. For example, the Mental Health and Substance Abuse Equity Act (MHPAEA) requires that substance abuse treatment be covered under the same insurance as general healthcare services. The implementation of this law has significantly improved patients’ access to treatment. Although there has been a slight increase in spending on substance abuse treatment per insured person, the impact on overall healthcare costs has been relatively small, demonstrating the economic viability and social value of insurance policies with equality at their core (Busch et al., 2014). Moreover, treating addiction is less costly and more effective than incarcerating addicts. Leaders in the police and justice sectors are increasingly recognizing that sending addicts to prison only perpetuates social problems, while directing resources to treatment and rehabilitation services can improve public safety (Williams, 2015). Despite its existence, enforcement has been challenging, leading to persistent coverage disparities. Federal agencies issued final rules in September 2024 to strengthen enforcement (U.S. Department of Labor, EBSA, 2024), but these new rules were immediately challenged by industry lawsuits, ultimately leading the agencies to suspend enforcement in May 2025 pending review (APASI, 2025). This policy uncertainty highlights the ongoing challenges of translating scientific consensus into stable and effective societal responses. Nevertheless, the view of addiction as a disease remains the fundamental driver for promoting fairer insurance coverage and shifting from punitive to rehabilitative criminal justice reforms.

Moreover, considering addiction as a disease may also reduce social stigma, so that more addicts can actively seek help rather than refusing treatment out of shame or fear. Currently, more than 70% of alcohol-dependent people have never sought professional help, and views of addiction as a moral failure or a weakness of the will undoubtedly exacerbate this phenomenon. In contrast, defining addiction as a disease can lead society to invest more resources in treatment, rehabilitation, and prevention services, rather than simply punitive policies. For example, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) has promoted the inclusion of substance abuse services in basic health benefits, which has greatly improved the accessibility of addiction treatment, further illustrating the important guiding significance of the disease definition for public policy.

Viewing addiction as a disease provides the essential foundation for critical policy and social reforms. Such a perspective underscores the value of evidence-based treatment strategies over punitive approaches, which not only reduces stigma and encourages more individuals to seek necessary care but also promotes public safety by breaking the cycle of addiction-related crime. Ultimately, addressing addiction as a chronic disease rather than a moral failing allows for a more compassionate, effective, and economically sustainable societal response.

In summary, neurobiological evidence clearly indicates that addiction is a brain disease rather than a simple lack of willpower. Addictive substances create lasting changes in brain circuits, disrupting neurotransmitter regulation (e.g., dopamine) and impairing critical functions controlled by areas such as the prefrontal cortex. These persistent physiological alterations undermine self-control, rational decision-making, and the proper assessment of natural versus drug-induced rewards. However, this biological model is not deterministic; as the experiences of Vietnam veterans demonstrate, environmental context and social support are powerful modulators of these neurobiological vulnerabilities. The cyclical and relapsing nature of addiction underscores its chronicity and complexity. Just like other chronic diseases, a short-term cure is a relatively rare outcome; instead, relapses are more common. Recognizing addiction as a disease, one that involves a complex interplay of biology and environment, thus fosters deeper understanding and enables society to respond with greater empathy and effectiveness.

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A Psychological Approach to Understanding and Addressing the Implications of Discrimination

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By Aviram Nessim, May 12, 2025


“Our future survival is predicated upon our ability to relate within equality.” 

– Audre Lorde

Discrimination, in both its overt and covert forms, has been shown to negatively impact individuals and society alike. Beyond its immediate effects, such as increased stress and negative emotions, discrimination affects physical and mental health, reduces productivity, and deepens systemic inequalities. These effects are also often internalized by individuals and can ripple outward to affect entire communities, weakening social cohesion and reducing trust between and within communities (Heiserman & Simpson, 2023; Lei et al., 2021; Yeh & Tung, 2021). The primary objective of this essay is to examine how discrimination affects human psychology and contributes to a less cohesive society. A secondary objective is to propose evidence-based solutions that may help in resolving this issue.

It is first essential to clarify the definition of discrimination and address how it most commonly appears in society, particularly given the term’s frequent misuse and oversimplification (Feagin & Eckberg, 1980). The American Psychological Association (2025) defines discrimination as “the unjust and differential treatment of the members of different age, gender, racial, ethnic, religious, national, ability, identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic, and other groups at the individual level.” In everyday life, discrimination most frequently arises in interpersonal settings, particularly in workplaces, and disproportionately affects people of color, women, and individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Murphy et al., 2018; Perry et al., 2013).

From a psychological standpoint, the effects of discrimination can be devastating for both the mind and body. It has been linked to increased rates of depression, disease, economic and social marginalization, and psychological distress (Brown et al., 2000). Krieger (1999) illustrates how perceiving racial discrimination can trigger a physiological stress response: fear and anger activate the “fight-or-flight” response, mobilize lipids and glucose to increase energy supplies, heighten sensory vigilance, and produce transient elevations in blood pressure. When this response becomes chronic, it can lead to sustained hypertension and other long-term health consequences. This stressful reaction serves as one way that discrimination provokes a general state of distress. Beyond physical effects, chronic discrimination can also reduce motivation, diminish overall well-being, and, even worse, lead to complete social withdrawal (Williams et al., 2019). Finding ways to create inclusion and a sense of belonging, then, becomes of utmost necessity, as a fair and inclusive society will only benefit us all. 

One solution to this problem comes through strategically debiasing establishments in a way that both majority and minority individuals feel included. Inclusion is psychologically vital, as research shows that feeling included increases one’s self-esteem, confidence, and sense of self-worth (Boeldt, 2017; Brouge, 2023). One effective approach is perspective-taking, in which individuals from different backgrounds are encouraged to understand one another’s experiences. This can include viewing the world from multiple lenses, practicing active listening, and expressing empathy. Perspective-taking has been shown to reduce stereotype threat among stigmatized groups and decrease in-group favoritism, likely by signaling that the same situation can be perceived and experienced in different ways (Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000). 

At the organizational level, one effective strategy involves promoting norms of group-based respect, including actively acknowledging, accepting, and valuing differences between and within groups, which has been shown to increase perceived inclusion (Jansen et al., 2015). These effects are amplified when the majority group members who are motivated to be non-prejudiced take an active role in creating inclusive environments (Murphy et al., 2018). Another important strategy involves educating people about the sources of discrimination and identifying structural inequalities in policies and workplace procedures. By doing so, both approaches have been shown to broaden people’s understanding of the factors that contribute to prejudice. For example, Son Hing et al. (2002) found that individuals with aversive racist attitudes, once made aware of their biases, were more willing to support policies designed to address systemic discrimination and promote equality.

Today, America is more racially and ethnically diverse than ever before. With this growing diversity comes a greater need to mutually respect, cooperate with, and include everyone at both the individual and organizational levels. Failing to do so risks exacerbating social divisions and perpetuating cycles of unsupported, unhappy, and unproductive individuals. However, by choosing to respect and include, we have an incredible opportunity to let our diversity become one of our greatest collective strengths.

Works Cited

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Heiserman, N., & Simpson, B. (2023). Discrimination reduces work effort of those who are disadvantaged and those who are advantaged by it. Nature Human Behaviour, 7(12), 1890–1898. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01703-9 

Jansen, W. S., Otten, S., & van der Zee, K. I. (2015). Being part of diversity: The effects of an all-inclusive multicultural diversity approach on majority members’ perceived inclusion and support for organizational diversity efforts. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 18(6), 817–832. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430214566892

Krieger N. (1999). Embodying inequality: a review of concepts, measures, and methods for studying health consequences of discrimination. International journal of health services: planning, administration, evaluation, 29(2), 295–352. https://doi.org/10.2190/M11W-VWXE-KQM9-G97Q  

Lei, Y., Shah, V., Biely, C., Jackson, N., Dudovitz, R., Barnert, E., Hotez, E., Guerrero, A., Bui, A. L., Sastry, N., & Schickedanz, A. (2021). Discrimination and Subsequent Mental Health, Substance Use, and Well-being in Young Adults. Pediatrics, 148(6), e2021051378. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2021-051378

Murphy, M. C., Kroeper, K. M., & Ozier, E. M. (2018). Prejudiced Places: How Contexts Shape Inequality and How Policy Can Change Them. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 5(1), 66-74. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732217748671

Pardede, S., & Kovač, V. B. (2023). Distinguishing the Need to Belong and Sense of Belongingness: The Relation between Need to Belong and Personal Appraisals under Two Different Belongingness-Conditions. European journal of investigation in health, psychology and education, 13(2), 331–344. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13020025 

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Scattered Reflections: Haikus by Eli Olevsky

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I. Melancholy & Memory

Someday, I would like
To run in a flower field.
Then, I’d be happy.

Every note, a tear.
Crying seas of melodies,
Pianos don’t float.

Sunsets mark the end.
A seasonal depression—
Then the cold sets in.

Cold, dead, leafless trees.
Spines of their beautiful selves,
Reborn in the spring.

Down by the river,
Reflections looking at you—
What have you become?

II. Darkness & Disillusionment

Afraid of the dark.
Afraid of what’s in the dark.
The dark is lonely.

Screams overwhelm me,
But silence unsettles me.
My ears deceive me.

The stars in the night
Are just satellites up high:
Techno-pollution.

Truth is fallacy.
Lies, just hiding behind cloaks—
Soon to be revealed.

A childhood ruined,
Fond memories corrupted.
Cocoa made by slaves.

III. Wander & Wonder

Staring at my screen,
Light pierces my retina.
I lay motionless.

If you jump up high,
Maybe you can touch the sky.
They’ll call you spaceman.

Do not fight the waves,
For they will carry you home—
Just go with the flow.

Alone in my mind,
I travel through time and space.
I find memories.

When you’re having fun,
Time sure likes to go by fast.
Isn’t that kind of cruel?

Threads of Being: Short Poems by Eli Olevsky

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————————————————————————————————————–

Seasons

A Summer ending with a fallen leaf,

A tree standing bare, lonely in a daze.

Whispers of Autumn, the song of a thief,

Blankets of warmth and light, gone in a haze.

Beasts retreat amidst Winter descending,

A father’s call, “Где ты, моя солнушка?”

A sun hides, tired, in its gaze, relenting.

“I’m sorry, I have to sleep now, Papa.”

And yet, a lowly flower lies unharmed,

The aftermath of war, a survivor.

A tear of pollen, a bloom of hope sired

From the heavens, melodies of a lyre.

Visions of light, once made a pariah,

A sign of Spring, hymns of the Messiah.

—————————————————————————————————————

Deception

(Inspired by survivor accounts of the Nazi Death Marches)

I can’t stop running, 

You’re so tired 

My body is shaking, 

Take a break 

I can feel my heart beating, 

Go to sleep 

I look up, it’s snowing 

It’s so cold 

The silence is captivating, 

Say something 

I’m not breathing, 

What is that smell? 

I think I’m bleeding, 

You’re too weak 

The light is fleeting, 

It’s getting dark 

I can feel myself collapsing, 

This is the end 

I wake up, 

You weren’t dreaming. 

————————————————————————————————————–—

Manifesting Divinity

Who is God without Adam? 

Who is Adam without God? 

The touch of life and its duality 

The connection between two worlds 

One cannot live without the other 

Connected like the atoms in our body 

The movement of electricity 

Gives meaning to our world 

Supposed greatness perceived 

By what is tangible and what is not 

Who is God without Adam? 

Who is Adam without God?

Sunburned

So, how’s your day?

Sun-sick skin

Scorching sand sizzling

Soaking, salt stinging

Aquatic arms aching

Ashy aromas abound

Albatross alarms air

And still, it’s a blissful day

————————————————————————————————————–

Scintillating Sky

The scintillating sky soars above, scattered so high. 

A creature overlooking, an all-seeing eye. 

It watches from afar, 

Like an empire and its Czar. 

It’s light will soon fade away, 

To be seen again the next day. 

The scintillating sky soars above, scattered so high. 

We carry

(Inspired by “Things We Carry on the Sea by Wang Ping” )

We carry memories of happiness 

We carry memories of sadness 

We carry the hugs of our mothers 

We carry the lessons of our fathers 

We carry the heat of hot summers 

We carry the cold of icy winters 

We carry the leaves that fall from trees 

We carry the ocean’s gentle breeze 

We carry our sins and our greeds 

We carry our virtues and good deeds 

We carry our hopes and dreams 

We carry our egos and high self esteems 

We carry the first breath out of our lungs 

We carry the death of our loved ones 

We carry memories of happiness 

We carry memories of sadness 

The Appalling Reality of Bykov’s film The Fool; the Pitiable State of Modern Russian Society and the Prevalence of Human Apathy

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by Maria Sazonova, May 17, 2023

Summary

The film Fool, released in 2014 and directed by Yuri Bykov, received instant popularity and spurred nuanced discussion of the film’s creative execution and purpose. Fool, without further introduction, thrusts us into the severe and authentic reality of modern Russian society. In a small city N, at an unknown time during the night, the viewers are witnesses of a Russia on the verge of falling apart, where dissatisfaction, apathy and violence are pervasive. 

Dmitrii Nikitin, a stoic and serious plumber’s assistant, is sent to fix a leak in a dilapidated building and discovers a sizable crack that runs vertically in the wall, threatening imminent disintegration of the whole structure. This endangers the lives of 800 residents of the dormitory, the “trash” of society that no one actually cares enough to save. Dmitrii takes up his fears with the city’s thoroughly corrupted higher-ups, who have been continuously and unabashedly stealing government funds meant for capital repair. They act only in selfish interests, imperiling and impoverishing the general public. The necessary rescue operation and the subsequent need for resettlement of all of the people in the dormitory will garner the attention of Moscow  and expose the rampant theft the mayor’s gang indulges in. Tensions run high, and N’s city authorities are paralyzed with indecision and fear. They decide to avoid responsibility and make the sinful choice of inaction. Dmitrii Nikitin does absolutely everything to bring attention to this issue, of both among the authorities and the residents, yet is mocked and dismissed. The ordinary plumber’s actions are so discordinant with the callous reality that he is labeled as a fool for trying to do good in a damned society. 

Bykov’s “Chernukha”/“Чернуха” and Hopelessness in Fool 

Political corruption of government officials is a chewed-over topic in Russian cinema, partially due to its pervasiveness in Russian social context. But Bykov gives a fresh take on it, alongside brilliantly portrayed poverty, impuissance, and philistinism of the people in the precarious dormitory. Additionally, in Fool, Bykov simultaneously exposes the tragedy of a single person and the tragic fate of society at large with a delicate and masterful dramatism.

Bykov’s seemingly favorite artistic choice is characterized by the unflattering term “chernukha”, meaning blackness or darkness coupled with feelings of all-consuming hopelessness, that pervades his films and provides an extremely pessimistic view of reality. The Fool received a radically bipolar response from audiences; the film’s simplicity and intelligibility invoked rapture in half and roiling repulsion in the rest. Nevertheless, Fool strikes a chord deep within a Russian person and pains them with its undeniable truth. 

This film is truthful, merciless, and a coarse reflection of reality portrayed as a grotesque anti-utopia. Bykov gives a diagnosis that doubles as a condemnation of a diseased society. Fool is a parable of enormous effect and consequence, plainly conveyed in its stinging images and adverse mannerisms. Bykov’s central message is frightfully depressing: In this world it is pointless to be good to others and true to your moral compass, because people of today’s society are poisoned by neglect. Any attempts to change the established course of things is bound to fail. Good people are an anomaly, shunned and hated by the nebulous, seething, and resentful cloud of the masses. This parable is angry and hateful but surprisingly strong and soul-striking; a genuine outcry of pain and imploration for change. Moreover, the hysterical quality of Bykov’s central message hides a passionate desire to be absolutely understood by as wide an audience as possible. Bykov bashes the viewer’s head into the asphalt in an attempt to knock some sense into them; such artistically violent means are necessary and even beneficial for an audience of selfish, rotten, and spiritually dormant people (In Bykov’s view, Russian citizens are as such). 

There are many criticisms that argue that Fool is too morally dichromatic and thus simplistic, contains generic and convincing dialogue, as well as excessively comical confessions to wrongdoing by the city’s authorities. Despite these justifiable points, critics unanimously agree that insistence on the film’s low quality is blasphemous. Personally, I recognize the genius of script, mood, and core meaning imported onto the audience in Fool. Though I wouldn’t outrightly recommend such a burdensome and fatalistic film, I do believe in its brilliance and significance. 

Naturally, this film is indisputably a depiction of an extreme, and I would caution against an overly literal perception of it; not all the societal details are as horrific and wretched in real life as they appear on the screen, but the similarities are chilling. It might seem that Bykov had lost faith in the Russian people and advocates an abandonment of any remaining scattered hope. But the heart strives for vitality and sparkling wishes! Some meek reviewers squeal that in spite of the hideous deformities in the extremities and organs of the Russian Motherland, the people still have a slippery hold on their pride, honor, and dignity. They are slowly but steadily sobering up, gaining momentum, and cultivating spiritual energy. The country is peppered with warriors like Dmitrii Nikitin, because good people exist and continue to fight – we must believe it, lest we sink into engulfing melancholy. 

Falling Building as a Metaphor for Modern Russian Society

In Fool, collective irresponsibility and unresponsiveness to pressing issues has resulted in complete collapse of communities and society at large that mirrors an internal demolition of a functioning moral and value system. Though the stereotypical villains in the movie are supposedly the city’s authorities, the viewer involuntarily starts considering the actual residents of the crumling dormitory – the majority are drug addicts, alcoholics, theives, abusers, and young hooligans chasing cheap highs and lovelessly fucking in dark attics. Due to the country’s collapse and absence of rewarding work, educational programs, and an open-minded community, these people have degraded, lost orientation and meaning on their  own existences. Most of them are fuelled by hatred and impudence, and it would be ridiculous to expect any shred of kindness or comfort from a neighbor in this building. The viewer inadvertently starts questioning: Are they really that innocent? Are they really worthy of saving? Is it worth endangering yourself and your family to save ungrateful strangers who are full of malice toward you, themselves, the world around them – as does the main character, Dmitrii? Or would the world be better off without the dregs of society? The viewer immediately denounces themselves for having such repugnant thoughts, but perhaps there are vestiges of truth in the assertion the public fully deserves the authorities they have, and nothing better. The people appear to be orphans of their government; unneeded and unloved and thus indifferent towards their own fate. But the normalized lack of love for life, empathy, and simple humanity that poisons the residents is sickening. The viewer is once again forced into an unbreakable cycle of questioning: who is to blame and what is to be done?

The people depicted in the film are ones without a future. They are weak and scared to death of any change in their wretched existence and any potential personal harm. The dormitory inhabitants will not raise a finger to improve their own life because they feel that “alas, that is the world we live in! There is no point in trying to improve it!” Instead of seeing regular people, the audience is brought before humanoid animals of various ages and genders, who don’t even care to consider themselves human; they impertinently engage in self-depreciation and refer to themselves as “trash”. The dormitory residents seem strangely proud of that flesh-brand; they reached the bottom of the barrel and had made a home there. However, in Fool, Bykov releases a silent scream that shatters your hearing with audible desperation: “Here before you is our greatest enemy! Not them — the elite, arrogant thieves, choking on their own wealth and fat but you yourself — cowardly, pathetic, silent!”

Dmitrii Nikitin’s Foolishness and Goodness 

Dmitrii Nikitin is almost killed, endures threats to his family and himself, and still, still, he remains truly and authentically Human and does everything in his power to save the ungrateful people around him. Though his sullen face, downturned lip-corners, and constantly scrunched eyebrows that abut a simple winter hat paint the picture of a solidified pessimist, Nikitin is desperately fighting the artifice and rot; he single-handedly tries to shape this world into something better. With an iron grip he clings to his ideals, his love and care for every stranger, and his abhorrence of cheating and theft. Dmitrii Nikitin stays honest, genuine, and honorable, despite the whole world’s attempt to kill that light inside of him. Everyone dismisses Dmitrii as a total fool, an idiot, because with the backdrop of continuous hypocrisy, lying, cheating, a good person is detested and regarded as a “white crow in a flock of black”. Nikitin is emphatically advised “don’t be a fool; don’t get involved in this, it’s not your problem”, and yet the main character refuses, embraces the label of ‘idiot’ since it allows him to cling to his ideals. The public is accustomed to such naively hopeful characters; one is tempted to doubt his overwhelming goodness and scrupulously search for any faults, to prove that he is just as bad as the rest of us. The crowd cannot accept Dmitrii Nikitin because he provides a painful contrast to their own pitiful state, and thus people tend to simplistically label others as “disgusting bastards” or “fools”, excluding any other possible categories. Therefore, the “bad” and “rotten” becomes indicative of normal and expected. 

In Bykov’s conception of Russian society, moral values become virtually nonexistent, and only rarely carried by “fools”. The prototype of the “holy fool” is quite frequent in Russian classical literature, most notable in the character of Knyaz (Prince) Lev Nikolaevich Myshkin in Fyodor Mikhaliovich Dostoevsky’s novel The Idiot. Like Myshkin, Dmitrii Nikitin completely gives himself over to others, and places his care for the people above personal gain and attainment of security and success. But even amongst regular and poor people like himself, the modern Knyaz Myshkin cannot find any supporters because nobody cares. 

Fool accurately captures the current Russian mentality (speaking from the perspective of a congregation of Russian people, solely in Bykov’s subjective interpretation): We don’t want the truth, because it is too crippling to bear. We hate being put before the fact of our misery, because we are perfectly cognizant of it ourselves. The plain-spoken truth will not help anyone and will only hasten the annihilation of the truth-bringer. We understand perfectly how we are living, the current state of us. We don’t want change, though we understand we are following the path to the bottom. Change will only make everything worse. 

Bykov understands that the Russian population has grown exceedingly unused to self-criticism, which makes Fool draw blood from softer skin. We (Russians) often prefer to compromise, brush aside problems, give in and bend under pressure to conform. Real fighters, real idealists like Dmitrii are very few and far between, and unfortunately life tends to break even the most well-intentioned and most resilient of them.

A Real Hero Battles Human Apathy 

Dmitrii Nikitin is a Real Hero, far from the flashy, red-underwear-clad American Superman. Nikitin is a benevolent and selfless person that actively fights injustice no matter the personal risk; he is the only person resisting total obliteration – to reiterate, both external and internal – but he is shackled with powerlessness and insignificance. On one hand, he is obstructed by higher-ups, who perceive everyone immediately outside of their aristocratic social circle as ‘dirt under their shoe’. On the other hand, a blatant factor in the dreadful situation is the sheer apathy of the actual residents of the crumbling apartments toward their own life and fate. Through this logical sequence of deliberation, an overarching idea is elucidated: The fatal defect of Russian people, as well as humanity in general, is omnipresent and all-consuming indifference. There is cataclysmic and irreversible loss of community, desire to live together, and help each other. Towards the end of the film, when Nikitin sends his wife and child away to safety while he stays behind attempts again to save the building, they have the following argument:

“- What world do you live in?? C’mon, let’s go!

– There’s hundreds of people there, hundreds! Do you have any conscience, no?

– Dim, they are no one to us.

– Shut up. Don’t you understand, we live like pigs, and die like pigs, only because we are no one to each other”.

Dmitrii’s wife expresses the egocentric sentiments he so despises, and the main character ends up misunderstood and ostracized by his family, though his words reflect the highest Christian love. 

Fool’s Ambiguous Ending: Mutilation of a Shunned Prophet

Bykov makes the Fool’s ending open ended and thus the central question remains unanswered: Does catastrophe occur and does the building crumble in the end? The final scene in the film is a symbolic slaughtering; The residents of the doomed building passionately “express their gratitude to their savior by violently beating him black and blue. Like Jesus Christ, Dmitrii Nikitin was killed – spiritually or physically, is inconsequential – by the very people he tried to save. Because, naturally, prophets are always “loved” by the public. Dmitrii’s frenzied efforts are completely futile – he genuinely wanted to help, to solve at least this dire problem in a world riddled with them, and this was the reward. Some of Fool’s reviewers admitted that sometimes, if you want to be heard you have to be willing to die (i.e. you must die to be heard). This is hauntingly explicit in the Fool’s final scene. In my mind, the true terror lies in the outcome of the beating; did Dmitrii’s devastation lead to disillusionment with his ideals? Was he emptied of his love for humanity? It physically chills me to ask, but how can anyone survive something like this and remain unchanged?

Bykov is a genius of symbolic interrogation of the audience and the reality they live in. He refuses to answer the burning questions he alludes to and intentionally steps back, confident in the thought that the light he flashes to expose all of the dirt in humanity – causing rats to scuttle and pupils shrink in fear – is enough to spur action or at least a deeper consideration of these issues. In a way, Bykov demolishes the 4th wall and invites multiple interpretations of his creation. The film’s story grips the audience until the ending and each viewer is put before this moral dilemma – reminiscent of the stylized ethical dilemmas such as the trolley problem – and left with yet another infuriating question: what would I undertake in this situation? 

A Secretly Coveted Motherland

In his interview dedicated to the Fool (Durak), Bykov exhibits loathing for the explosively excited Western  (i.e. American and European)  reaction to the film. He asserts that foreign viewers will readily perceive the Fool as a social criticism exclusively most importantly about Russia, exposing the saddening truth about its current state of physical and moral degradation. While it is an unapologetically a Russian film, a constituent of the infamously dark and pessimistic Russian modern cinema, taking into account a Western review puts it into a precarious position. The Fool unintentionally encourages the classic Western aversion and haughty disapproval of Russia and all things Russian, a perpetual attitude that is especially acute in the recent political atmosphere. Bykov’s masterpiece only further intensifies Russia’s antagonization and illusion of feebleness. 

Fundamentally, the call-to-action message of the film extends not only to dilapidated Russian society, but addresses similar broad problems just as potently  present in many different countries. It would be counterproductive to gleefully point fingers at a film based on sharp criticism of Russia, all while ignoring societal parallels in Western nations. Ironically, it seems that Bykov’s unflinching claims will turn out to be of little significance for changing prevalent Western interpretations of the film, mostly due to politicized media that benefits from casting Russia in the worst light possible (which begs a larger and nuanced discussion of fallacious media influence – an ailment that affects both countries equally – omitted here). 

Be that as it may, it’s crucial to realize that the premise of the film is not inherently political at all: it is about people and their process of internal abasement due to dire outside circumstances and rotting mass perceptions of the world and one’s community. And people are people no matter what race or nationality they identify with. 

For a Western thinker/viewer there is a peculiar phenomenon prevalent amongst Russian intellectuals; unthinkable to a simplistically (i.e. blindly) patriotic American, for instance. At the tailend of the interview, in a firm and unyielding tone, Bykov declares the following: “I do not like a lot of what is going on in this country, and I try to honestly discuss and portray that in my pictures. But concurrently, I don’t want them to think, over there, in the West, that I showed up to complain and invoke pity about my struggles in a desolate place. I don’t want to leave, I don’t want to go anywhere. I want to live here, I love my country. One does not choose their homeland – a Mother is a Mother”. Even from the harshest critic of modern reality we observe an inherent devotion to its suffering and diseased Russia, as he bleakly portrays Her.

This Same Sentiment in Russian Literature Tradition

On the 8th of July 1827, in a letter to Pytor Vyazemsky, Russia’s most celebrated poet, playwright, and novelist Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin produced a line that would encompass the feelings of the intelligentsia towards their homeland for centuries to come: “I, of course, despise my Motherland wholeheartedly, from the head to feet — but I’m aggravated/chagrined, if a foreigner shares my sentiment”. Russian intellectuals and cultural figures – then and now – share an intimate hatred for their country and its self-destructive political movements which is paradoxically irreconcilable with a concealed faith and familial love for Russian; one that cannot be removed even surgically. Thus arises the jealous overprotectiveness of Russia’s reputation against European and American prying media intrusions. 

Pushkin’s poem To the Slanderers of Russia, published in 1831 as a response to French military interventions against the Russian Army during the Polish rebellions of 1830 – 1831, expresses a similar fiery sentiment. Pushkin condescendingly dispels foreigners from Russian international political actions and flaunts an unshakable confidence in his people; an attitude most prominent in the following excerpts: 

“Desist: this is a strife of Slavs among themselves,

An old domestic strife, already weighed by fate,

An issue not to be resolved by you.

… 

Send then to us, oh, bards,

Your sons enraged:

There’s room for them in Russia’s fields,

‘Mid graves that are not strange to them”.

Likewise Fyodor Tyutchev, a renowned Slavophile poet, passionately states that “Russia cannot be known by the mind … Russia can only be believed in” (1866) in one of his most famous poems, You Cannot Know Her with the Mind… This illustrates the depth and intransigence of a Russian’s belief in their Motherland, regardless of the horrific historical and societal occurrences, which unfortunately tend to cyclically repeat. This grandiose idea of an unconditional love for a hulking country begs the statement that NONE of the horrors and crimes committed by the government heads operating this elaborate, rusted, moaning machine – at any point in Russia’s tumultuous history – can be invalidated or nullified. 

This patriotic idea reverberates in many of the grandest literary and poetic works of Russian literature across centuries. However, while its significance for the formation of ambiguous and idealistic Russian nationalism cannot be negated, it is more often  disputed and contested than blindly accepted and propagated. Throughout history, Russians have incessantly slandered their own country; ironically, this unnerving abhorrence remained the only stable thing in a chaotic and blood-soaked history. In Bykov’s view, people have lost an anchoring belief in their country and in themselves, setting them adrift in a headspace permeated with an absence of moral sense. Disillusionment with your nation and its inexorable decay inevitably accompanies despondence and nihilistic conceptions of one’s existence. 

[Concluding Note: Thank you for taking the time to read this piece! Fool can be found for free on Youtube.com with English subtitles

(in my rough translation)]

Works Cited

Dzen.ru. (n.d.). https://dzen.ru/a/Y0WTqQXABRHg-oxd 

YouTube. (2016, March 25). ДУРАК – Фильм Юрия Быкова. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrusrtlTHQA  

Антон Смаль 21 января 2015 в 18:50, Ridzhi 22 января 2015 в 00:11, & Polia 24 января 2015 в 17:53. (2022, December 28). “Дурак”: герои больше не нужны? Научи хорошему. https://whatisgood.ru/tv/films/durak-geroi-bolshe-ne-nuzhny/ 

Дурак (Дурак, 2014): Рецензия от автора #естькино на Ivi. Онлайн-кинотеатр Иви. (n.d.). https://www.ivi.tv/watch/126658/reviews/58600 

Дурак. Главная. (2014, September 8). http://rottenaparts.ru/film/%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA 

Кому на руси жить хорошо. Кинопоиск. (n.d.). https://www.kinopoisk.ru/film/808639/reviews/ord/rating/ 

Партийный переулок, д. 1, к. 57, с. 3 115093 Москва, Россия info@iz.ru. (2014, August 20). “Я не хочу, чтобы на западе думали, будто я приехал пожаловаться.” Известия. https://iz.ru/news/575503 

Рецензия на фильм “Дурак.” (n.d.). https://www.film.ru/articles/horoshimi-delami-proslavitsya-nelzya 

Рецензия на фильм “Дурак” быкова: Журнал Интроверта. Рецензия на фильм “Дурак” Быкова | Журнал Интроверта. (2023, May 22). https://artforintrovert.ru/tpost/zzfafigst1-retsenziya-na-film-durak-bikova 

Юмор помогает жить // Обзор обсуждения фильма “Дурак” с Юрием Быковым. – Новости – Образовательная программа “Юриспруденция” – Национальный исследовательский университет “Высшая школа экономики.” (n.d.). https://www.hse.ru/ba/law/news/203365171.html 

Can AI Be Ethical?

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by Shireen Zaman, May 17, 2024

Concerns over the alignment of artificial intelligence, or AI, to human goals, preferences, and values are at an all-time high as AI plays increasingly large roles in daily life and is starting to take up space in fields where all of the decision-making once belonged to humans. Researchers discuss how the often erratic actions and values of humans may even contradict, and expecting an AI to understand why and how to replicate those behaviors is often impossible. Researchers have tried workarounds, such as using neural networks to reward and punish behavior, but that often leads to the machines acting in unexpected and almost comical ways because of how they misconstrued the goal. That is why many have turned to focusing AI on interpreting the goals and intentions of humans rather than maximizing output for a certain objective, known as inverse reinforcement learning, or IRL (Mitchell, 2022). However, the question remains to be answered whether AI’s development into the decision-making sphere where humans would have been in control can develop into something ethical with IRL, or that can not be entirely true inherently because it was developed as a tool and is embedded with the values of its developers. That is why ethics within development is incredibly important, because those ethics will be translated into the AI’s neural networks and deep learning models. 

AI is a disruptive technology, meaning it has greatly changed the corporate and sociocultural world. While there have been many advances in the medical field and AI algorithms have made huge progress in the world of research, there have also been many concerns over the trajectory of its applications, such as algorithms within social media creating political echo chambers and discrimination in hiring. AI taught to want and be like its human counterparts may also pick up implicit biases, effectively embedding them through training datasets or other instructional methods. Then, once this has made its way into the broader public’s lives, the effects will become untraceable and inevitable, with corporations maximizing profits while claiming AI as “just a tool.”

The ripple effect of AI in the corporate world may be seen in many ways. For example, as mentioned previously, in the hiring process, there are many concerns that an AI algorithm being used to sort through applicants may reflect choices made by companies, but also be shaped by structural norms and practices in the field. These algorithms would be influenced by corporate incentives and regulatory framework, and not necessarily the developer’s choice, so finding the issue’s root would be very difficult. If IRL-oriented AI were to choose applicants with values like diversity and equity in mind, the outcome would be more ethical and fair. Another example would be chatbots used instead of customer service representatives or automatic content generation. If training data contains racist or sexist language, the AI may perpetuate stereotypes if it does not mimic the same kind of language. Narrow datasets, in general, can be very controversial and taxing, where skewed data for facial recognition technology may lead to misidentification or exclusion for populations with certain features, or biased risk assessment algorithms may disproportionately target minorities in sentencing decisions within the criminal justice system.

This all begs the question asked earlier, whether AI can move past this “just a tool” narrative when, in the end, the corporations and governments with the most vested interests in developing AI for marketing (such as social media) or surveillance (such as facial recognition) are largely in control of its deployment and have access to all the information it collects and works with. In the end, it is a tool for these large organizations but has far-reaching effects on the individual. Through this the difference in individual vs structural ethics can be seen because, to these organizations, violations of personal privacy, implicit discrimination, and stereotyping do not outweigh their larger goals/values of maintaining established social order, optimizing profit models, and ensuring the stability and safety of organizations themselves. 

Thus, developers are responsible for aligning AI to human interests by ensuring they are trained on large, representative datasets that reflect diversity and are imbued with human complexity. In addition, corporations and policymakers must implement measures that maintain fairness and transparency in AI models by detecting and mitigating biases in AI. Both parties must work together to create AI that is ethical and beneficial to human society and quell fears of a dystopian society where AI becomes destructive.

Works Cited

Mitchell, Melanie. “What Does It Mean to Align AI With Human Values?” Quanta Magazine, 13 Dec. 2022, www.quantamagazine.org/what-does-it-mean-to-align-ai-with-human-values-20221213/.

Balancing Heart and Mind: The Dual Approach to Effective Animal Advocacy

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by Emily Rubinov, May 10, 2024

Every act of animal abuse diminishes our collective humanity. We must work together to create a world free from cruelty and violence. – Sangdeun “Lek” Chailert.

Our responsibility to protect animals is deeply rooted in our coexistence on Earth. As vital components of ecosystems, animals contribute significantly to biodiversity and help maintain ecological balance. Recognizing that animals, like humans, can experience emotions such as pain and joy obliges us to treat them with compassion and respect. This ethical stance reflects our societal values and promotes a culture of empathy and responsibility. Protecting animals underscores our commitment to justice and ethical conduct, enhancing our collective pride and reinforcing our duties towards our planet. Ultimately, animals’ welfare is intertwined with ecosystems’ health, which provides essential services, including pollination, nutrient cycling, and pest control, which are crucial for sustaining life, including human life.

Chailert’s belief that every act of animal abuse diminishes our shared humanity encapsulates a profound truth: our actions toward animals reflect our collective values and aspirations. 

This is where advocacy against animal abuse comes in. While responding with strong emotions to the mistreatment of animals is natural, effective advocacy requires a balance between emotion and reason. Allowing emotions to dominate can sometimes cloud judgment and lead to actions that undermine the cause. Instead, it is essential to couple heartfelt concern with rational arguments and well-thought-out strategies. This approach not only garners more comprehensive support by appealing to a broader audience but also ensures that the message is conveyed clearly and constructively. Balancing the heart and mind in this way strengthens the case for animal protection and increases the likelihood of achieving meaningful and lasting change.

Emotions play a critical role in moral judgments and actions. According to renowned philosopher Martha Nussbaum, emotions are not just the outcomes of judgments but also forms of judgment that influence our behavior towards others, including animals (Nussbaum 2001). In the face of animal abuse, anger and sadness go beyond simple reactions; they indicate a deep recognition of injustice and a drive to correct or react to ethical violations. However, without proper management, these emotions can lead to harmful results, like confrontational behavior or weak advocacy tactics. 

While emotions can trigger instant reactions, guiding these responses into thoughtful, rational actions is crucial. Philosopher Peter Singer states that the principles of compelling generosity should direct our responses to animal suffering. This approach combines the heart and the head. The heart would be moved by empathy for suffering beings, and the head, guided by rationale, reason, and evidence, would take the most effective action (Singer 2015). By embracing this approach, activists can create strategies in animal welfare that are compassionate, strategic, and grounded in evidence.

The success of animal advocacy campaigns often depends on a balance between passionate emotional engagement and methodical, evidence-based strategies. An example is the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) campaign against puppy mills. Puppy mills are large-scale dog breeding operations that produce puppies for profit while neglecting the well-being of the young dogs and their mothers. Grounded in thorough investigations, public awareness, and legislative advocacy, this approach led to significant reductions in these facilities. 

The investigations carried out by HSUS discovered distressing conditions in these mills, including cramped living spaces, poor medical care, and a lack of basic hygiene, all of which contribute to severe health and behavioral issues in the animals. By bringing these conditions to light through detailed reports and compelling visual evidence, HSUS effectively motivated public sentiment and gathered support for legislative amendments. This strategic application propelled the campaign and influenced policymakers to enact stricter regulations on breeding facilities, thereby ensuring improved dog treatment and welfare.

This case shows that well-planned advocacy efforts can significantly improve animal well-being. HSUS’s strategy, which integrates thorough research, community involvement, and focused legislative measures, tackles current problems and aids in preventing future cruelty. Their approach’s rationality and ethical foundations are supported by a study published in the Journal of Animal Law and Ethics. The study examines the methods and outcomes of various Animal welfare campaigns, highlighting HSUS’s campaigns as examples of effective and ethically sound practices (Smith 2021).

In debates about animal advocacy, supporters of emotionally charged tactics often argue that such approaches are essential for capturing the public’s attention and triggering immediate action. Emotional responses to animal cruelty, characterized by visible outrage or sadness, attract individuals to take action and can be a driving force behind rallying support. Advocates believe that public demonstrations and provocative installations are crucial for exposing the realities of animal suffering that might otherwise remain hidden from the public eye. 

Animal Equality’s global protests on Animal Rights Day utilize visible emotions as a critical element in their advocacy. These events are designed to draw attention to the conditions within the meat, dairy, and egg industries, aiming to engage public empathy and provoke change. Emotional displays in these contexts often attract public attention by creating a palpable sense of urgency and making the suffering more relatable, leading to increased engagement and support. According to Faunalytics, well-communicated emotional expressions during protests can enhance the issue’s visibility, potentially affecting public and policy attitudes toward animal welfare. This engagement is often due to the powerful impact of seeing human emotion, which can humanize the protest message and make the abstract suffering of animals more tangible and immediate to onlookers (Animal Equality, 2024; Faunalytics, 2024).

Protests originate as a result of emotion and often in response to perceived violent injustices. protest is inconceivable without emotions. It is emotions which ‘give ideas, ideologies, identities and even interests their power to motivate’. Social movements are carriers of meaning, and organizers do their utmost to create moral outrage and to provide a target against which this can be vented. (Troost, et al., 2013). Another example is rooted in the historical injustices experienced by the African American community over the last several centuries. Black people in the U.S. are not only three times more likely to be killed by police than white people, but they’re also less likely to be armed than white people during these interactions with police. For Black people who experience violence at the hands of the people and institutions that are supposed to protect them, the question becomes: “If they use violence, why shouldn’t we use violence?..They know that violence works, otherwise they wouldn’t use it” (Arntsen, 2020)

It is crucial to recognize that while emotional approaches in animal advocacy are practical for attracting public and media attention, they must be managed cautiously. The research compiled in Oxford Academic’s “Rational Approaches to Animal Rights” emphasizes that these emotional strategies, if not carefully handled, can backfire by skewing the public’s perception of the movement’s legitimacy. For example, activists who throw blood on fur wearers at protests, intending to shock and provoke thought, often generate negative media coverage instead, which can detract from the movement’s credibility and alienate the general public. (Oxford Academic, 2022). 

By advocating for a balanced approach that incorporates both emotional appeal and rational argumentation, this research suggests that such a strategy can significantly enhance the effectiveness of campaigns by making them more palatable and credible to a broader audience.

The study underscores the importance of integrating psychological insights into campaign strategies to maintain the integrity and impact of advocacy efforts (Oxford Academic, 2022). It is crucial to consider the benefits of a balanced approach that incorporates both passionate appeals and rational discourse to ensure the longevity and effectiveness of the animal advocacy movement. This balanced strategy not only heightens the effectiveness of campaigns but also ensures they are ethically solid and less likely to provoke backlash or desensitization. The exploration through the complexities of animal advocacy highlights the profound impact of emotions and rationality in shaping our responses to injustice. Sangdeun’ Lek’ Chailert’s call for collective action resonates deeply, underlining the crucial role of unity in fostering a world free from cruelty and violence. 

The bond we often form with our pets—providing solace, bringing joy, and enhancing our lives—illustrates a fundamental, powerful truth: animals, like humans, experience emotions and suffering. The emotional depth of our pets, who seek comfort when frightened or express joy upon our return, exemplifies this. Their behaviors, far from mere instincts, are rich expressions of emotions that echo our own feelings of fear, joy, and security. Recognizing these parallels in emotional experiences strengthens the argument for a compassionate, balanced advocacy approach.  

Exploring ethical responses, guided by renowned philosophers like Martha Nussbaum and Peter Singer, underscores the significance of channeling our passions into thoughtful, strategic actions. Initiatives such as the Humane Society of the United States’ campaign against puppy mills illustrate that successful advocacy thrives on a delicate balance between emotional engagement and evidence-based strategies. While emotionally charged tactics can draw attention to animal suffering, their effectiveness relies on careful management and integration with rational discourse. By advocating for a balanced approach, we can protect the integrity and impact of our advocacy efforts. This approach upholds the principles advocated by Chailert and motivates individuals to embrace a strategic mindset in their advocacy. Embracing their wisdom, we understand that the strength of our actions lies in our emotional empathy and our ability to advocate thoughtfully and compassionately. It is about paving a path toward a world where the dignity of every living being is not just acknowledged but actively ensured and protected.

Jane Goodall once said, ‘The least I can do is speak out for those who cannot speak for themselves.’ This powerful statement encapsulates the essence of animal advocacy—our responsibility to give voice to the voiceless. Goodall’s words remind us that our advocacy is not only an act of compassion but also a duty. They serve as a call to action, urging us to use our voices and abilities to effect real change and ensure that the dignity of all creatures is respected and defended.

Works Cited

Animal Equality. “Animal Equality Hosts Global Protests on Animal Rights Day. ” Animal Equality, 9 Apr. 2024, animalequality.org/news/animal-equality-hosts-global-protests-on-animal-rights-day. 

Arntsen, Emily. “Are Peaceful Protests More Effective than Violent Ones?” Northeastern Global News, 29 Nov. 2021, news.northeastern.edu/2020/06/10/are-peaceful-protests-more-effective-than-violent-ones/.

L., Gary, and Francione. “  Animal Rights Theory and Utilitarianism: Relative Normative Guidance.” Animal Law Legal Center, 1 Jan. 1997, www.animallaw.info/article/animal-rights-theory-and-utilitarianism-relative-normative-guidance

Millán, Gustavo Ortiz. “Nussbaum on the Cognitive Nature of Emotions.” Manuscrito, UNICAMP – Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Centro de Lógica, Epistemologia História da Ciência, 19 Sept. 2016, www.scielo.br/j/man/a/CHYgqpBddcY4YkRp7CBJfyG/?lang=en. 

Nobis, Nathan. “Rational Engagement, Emotional Response, and the Prospects for Moral Progress in Animal Use ‘Debates.’” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 30 Mar. 2012, academic.oup.com/mit-press-scholarship-online/book/22239/chapter/182431728. 

Polanco, Andrea. “The Challenges of Researching Animal Advocacy Protests.” Faunalytics, 13 June 2022, faunalytics.org/the-challenges-of-researching-animal-advocacy-protests

“Puppy Mill Investigations and Reports.” The Humane Society of the United States, www.humanesociety.org/resources/puppy-mill-investigations-and-reports. Accessed 30 Apr. 2024.]

Troost, Dunya van, et al. “Emotions of Protest.” SpringerLink, Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1 Jan. 1970, link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137025661_10#:~:text=It%20is%20emotions%20which%20’give,which%20this%20can%20be%20vented.

Ethical Horizons: Insights on Science and Society from George Orwell

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by Emily Rubinov, February 14, 2024

In today’s rapidly evolving technological landscape, the relevance of George Orwell’s essay “What is Science?” serves as a poignant beacon to navigate the complex landscape of scientific endeavors. Orwell’s insightful exploration underscores the moral imperatives intertwined with scientific pursuits, reminding us of the responsibilities that accompany technological and scientific advancement. At the heart of Orwell’s argument is that scientific education goes beyond technical skills. It should include understanding ethics and culture. Orwell’s essay is not just a theory; it gives practical advice for dealing with modern problems. From AI to biotech, his ideas prompt us to consider science’s ethical and social impacts, not just its capabilities. 

One of the most pressing challenges is the ethical implications of artificial intelligence (AI) development. Orwell’s emphasis on the need for scientists and policymakers to consider the broader societal impact of their work resonates deeply in discussions surrounding AI ethics. As AI systems become increasingly integrated into daily life, Orwell’s call for ethical reflection urges us to ensure that technological progress aligns with human values and well-being. Given the potential benefits and risks of AI, this reflection is crucial and underscores the importance of ethical integrity in shaping the future of technology. 

The deployment of AI in various sectors, from healthcare to finance, raises complex ethical dilemmas. For example, in healthcare, AI-driven diagnostic tools offer the potential for more accurate and efficient diagnoses. However, concerns arise regarding patient privacy, data security, and algorithmic bias. Orwell’s insistence on ethical integrity compels us to scrutinize these issues, emphasizing the importance of transparency, accountability, and inclusivity in AI development and deployment. Similarly, Orwell’s examination of the ethical dilemmas in gene editing technologies like CRISPR prompts us to consider the potential consequences of genetic manipulation. While CRISPR holds promise for treating genetic diseases, Orwell’s call for ethical reflection underscores the need to thoughtfully navigate this technology’s ethical complexities. Questions about consent, equity in access to genetic therapies, and the potential for unintended consequences require careful consideration. 

Orwell’s insistence on ethical awareness reminds us that a commitment to social responsibility and human dignity must guide scientific progress. Moreover, Orwell’s cautionary tales about the potentially catastrophic consequences of unbridled scientific progress, particularly in the realm of nuclear arms, retain their relevance and urgency today. As geopolitical tensions persist and nuclear proliferation continues, Orwell’s plea for scientists and policymakers to consider the moral implications of their work takes on a new and pressing significance. The specter of devastating outcomes underscores the imperative for rigorous ethical scrutiny and international cooperation in managing nuclear technology responsibly. 

Orwell’s call for a holistic approach to scientific education is a powerful reminder that we must go beyond technical mastery and cultivate ethical integrity and social awareness among scientists. By integrating ethics into scientific training and practice, we can foster a generation of proficient scientists in their fields while also being mindful of the broader societal implications of their work. This is not just a suggestion but a necessity in our ever-evolving technological landscape. George Orwell’s essay prompts us to consider the pivotal role of scientific institutions and policymakers in promoting ethical conduct and accountability in scientific research. This underscores the power and responsibility that scientists and policymakers hold in shaping the future of scientific progress. 

Orwell’s enduring wisdom serves as a beacon in the ever-evolving landscape of scientific inquiry, prompting us to reassess our ethical obligations amidst technological advancement continually. As we navigate the complexities of AI, gene editing, and nuclear technology, Orwell’s emphasis on ethical integrity underscores the need for a steadfast commitment to societal well-being. By embracing Orwell’s call for holistic scientific education and rigorous ethical scrutiny, we can forge a path toward responsible innovation, ensuring that our pursuit of knowledge remains firmly anchored in principles of social responsibility and human dignity. 

In conclusion, Orwell’s essay provides a timeless framework for navigating the ethical complexities of modern science. By integrating ethical reasoning and cultural understanding into scientific education and practice, we can strive towards a more conscientious and socially responsible approach to innovation, ensuring that scientific progress enhances rather than endangers human welfare. Orwell’s call for a holistic approach to scientific education remains as vital today as ever, guiding our pursuit of knowledge and progress. His insights remind us that science is not just a means to an end but a moral endeavor with profound societal implications. By heeding his call to integrate ethical reflection into scientific practice, we can harness the transformative power of science for the greater good.

Works Cited

Dag, O. “George Orwell.” George Orwell: What Is Science?, 18 Apr. 2000, orwell.ru/library/articles/science/english/e_scien. 

The Perpetuation of Child Labor in the Cocoa Industry: A Critical Examination of Neglect and Corporate Accountability

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by Eli Olevsky, May 3, 2024

Consider the chocolate bars you grew up eating. Many of us have fond memories associated with our favorite brands. An exposé by The Washington Post written by Peter Whoriskey and Rachel Siegel revealed that much of the cocoa we buy from major chocolate companies such as Mars, Nestlé, and Hershey begins with child labor. Additionally, the article points out the lack of reduction in child labor, despite pledges from the companies themselves to end child slavery in cocoa plantations such as those in the Ivory Coast in West Africa (Whoriskey and Siegel). This essay will seek to shed light on the inhumane child slavery practices within the cocoa industry, its connections to the chocolate company giants, as well as their subsequent failures to reduce and end those affiliations. Since companies cannot be relied on to change tactics out of the goodness of their hearts, it will ultimately be upon the shoulders of the masses to effect change as they are the primary consumers of these tainted products and can bring about true change by targeting their bottom lines. Once a strategy is no longer profitable, exploitative corporations are forced to change or amend their approaches as proven by numerous successful boycotts and awareness campaigns I will mention in this essay. 

Unfortunately, the presence of child slavery in the cocoa industry is not a recent revelation. It is estimated that 25-50% of children within Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire worked in Cocoa as the results of 2007 and 2008/9 surveys. Despite this, only 5% of children in Côte d’Ivoire and 10% in Ghana worked for pay (Payson Final Report 2011). Comparatively, The Department of Labor reports that currently, “there are 1.56 million children in child labor with 43 percent engaged in hazardous work in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana”. Additionally, the site lists several dangers of working in these fields, such as chemical exposure, burning fields, sharp tools, and lifting heavy loads (Child Labor in Cocoa). The initial article by The Washington Post described the kind of work children were put to, stating, “There is land to be cleared, typically with machetes; sprayings of pesticide; and more machete work to gather and split open the cocoa pods. Finally, the work involves carrying sacks of cocoa that may weigh 100 pounds or more” (Whorisky and Siegal). A follow-up survey from Tulane University presenting the statistics as of 2013-14 mentioned that these children experienced many types of injuries. The injuries included wounds and cuts, broken bones, burns, snake bites, back pain, muscle pain, and several more (Payson Final Report 2015). Moreover, a 2020 report by NORC found the percentage of children working in cocoa exposed to agrochemicals increased from 15% to 50% in both regions (Sadhu et al.).

In a 2001 congressional record, an article was included in which a reporter details the conditions of working on the Ivory Coast as a child laborer, detailing, “Most of them are 12 to 16 years old. Some are as young as 9. The slaves live on corn paste and bananas. Some are whipped, beaten, and broken like horses to harvest the almond size beans”. The article goes on to a particular account from a consul general in an Ivorian Coast town, reading: 

They called Abdoulaye Macko, who was then the Malian consul general… he found the 19 boys and young men there. Aly, the youngest, was 13. The oldest was 21. “They were tired, slim, they were not smiling.” Macko said. “Except one child was not there. This one, his face showed what was happening. He was sick; he had (excrement) in his pants. He was lying on the ground, covered with cacao leaves because they were sure he was dying. He was almost dead. . . . He had been severely beaten.’ According to medical records, other boys had healed scars as well as open, infected wounds all over their bodies (107th CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION).

The important question to ask after these realizations of child slavery within regions that supply 60% of the world’s cocoa is “What is being done to prevent this?” (Child Labor in Cocoa). In 2001, the Harkin-Engel protocol was established to remove the worst forms of child labor in the growing and processing of cocoa beans. This protocol was signed by several major chocolate companies such as Hershey Food Corporation, Nestlé Chocolate and Confections USA, M&M/Mars Inc., and several more (Harkin Engel Protocol). Despite the protocol, according to The Washington Post Article mentioned before, “The world’s chocolate companies have missed deadlines to uproot child labor from their cocoa supply chains in 2005, 2008 and 2010” (Whoriskey and Siegel).  The 2015 report by Tulane University presenting data between their 2008/09 and 2013/14 surveys noted that children working in cocoa production increased from 1,817,278 to 2,260,407 between the two survey dates (Payson Final Report 2015). The 2020 NORC report also cited, “In Côte d’Ivoire the prevalence rate of hazardous child labor in cocoa production… increased from 23 percent in 2008/09 to 37 percent in 2018/19, while in Ghana….increased from 43 percent in 2008/09 to 51 percent in 2018/19” (Sadhu et al.).

Two decades after the Harkin-Engel Protocol, these chocolate corporations have implemented initiatives to identify child labor within the supply chain and eliminate it. According to Mars’ Cocoa For Generations sustainability plan, they commit to “prevent and mitigate human rights issues…Ensure 100% of our cocoa is responsibly sourced globally and is traceable (from the farmer to the first point of purchase) by 2025” (Cocoa for Generations). Hershey’s Cocoa For Good plan indicates, “we are expanding the coverage of our Child Labor Monitoring and Remediation Systems (CLMRS)…as we aim for 100% coverage of our Cocoa For Good farms by 2025” (Tejada Chavez). Nestlé’s Cocoa Plan echoed a similar tone: “We sourced, in 2022, 68.3% of our cocoa volumes from the Nestlé Cocoa Plan with the aim of reaching 100% by 2025” (Nestle Cocoa Plan). 

To understand the degree to which these companies can be trusted to create any real impact and change, the Washington Post article previously mentioned compiled the relationships between the percent of cocoa that is currently certified by these corporate chocolate giants and the traceable amount. For Mars, “around 50 percent of its cocoa is certified by Fairtrade and Rainforest Alliance”, but only “24 percent is traceable to the farmer level”. Hershey’s claims to have had “80 percent certified at the end of 2018”, while “less than half” is traceable to its source. For Nestlé, however, it has been shown that in the Ivory Coast, 80% of their cocoa that is certified is also traceable to the source (Whoriskey and Siegel). 

Striving for 100% traceable cocoa, while a step in the right direction, does not guarantee any meaningful results as the sourcing of chocolate is done through faulty fair trade certification companies. What good is being able to trace cocoa beans to their source, if the supposedly “certified” source still has instances of child labor harvesting those beans? A 2019 report done by the Corporate Accountability Lab noted, “a BBC investigation found children, including trafficked children, working on Fairtrade certified plantations in Ghana and Cote d’Ivoire. The Kuapo Kokoo cooperative…an Ivorian coop supplying to Nestlé, were both certified Fairtrade” (Empty Promises). A more recent investigation done by the Corporate Accountability Lab in 2021 found that, 

in December 2020, investigators saw a little girl working on a certified farm near Aboisso, carrying cocoa pods on her head. The investigators learned that this farm sold their cocoa beans to the CNEK cooperative, which is certified by both Rainforest Alliance and Fairtrade International…That same December, the investigators spoke with a small boy who was carrying a large bag of cocoa pods to an assembly point on a farm near Abengourou. This farm, they learned, sold its cocoa to the FAHO cooperative that was certified by UTZ through August 2021 and is certified by Fairtrade International (Brudney).

Not only do these certifications fail to adequately reduce the amount of child labor in the cocoa industry, but certified farms in the Ivory Coast were found to be even more likely to have child laborers than other plantations (Whoriskey). The reliance on these certification companies by major global chocolate corporations despite these third-party inspectors only being “required to visit fewer than 10% of cocoa farms”, according to The Washington Post, demonstrates a lack of trustworthiness in these chocolate companies efforts’ to address the still pervasive child slavery in the cocoa industry (Whoriskey and Siegel). It is only symptomatic of the increase in child labor in the cocoa industry over the years.

Despite the prevalence of information highlighting the cruel environments for many children in West Africa, progress has been bafflingly slow to remedy it. Their inability to meet deadlines over the last two decades, coupled with their use of completely unreliable certifications is beyond problematic. Due to this, it seems hard to believe that chocolate companies such as Hershey, Mars, and Nestlé have every intention of demonstrating a major change in their supply chain habits to create 100% ethical chocolate production by 2025. Fueled by the increasing numbers of children put in danger to create the products they sell, they need to be held accountable for their inaction.

Several campaigns have been previously successful at changing corrupt industries for the better. An example of this includes the campaign against Nike in the 90s to end the use of child labor and sweatshops in its overseas factories which resulted in reforms and improvements in working conditions within the supply chain (Klein). Another notable example is the Accord on Fire and Building Safety established in Bangladesh, which was established after the Rana Plaza collapse in 2013. The tragedy resulted in the death of 1000 garment factory workers as a result of poor working conditions. Due to increased pressure as a result of public outcry and divestment, the regulation led to major brands, trade unions, and NGOs coming together to implement safety inspections, training programs, and remediation efforts in garment factories (The Bangladesh Accord). We as consumers must speak out against this, for these companies rely on our money to make their chocolates. With our voices and without our funding, they will have no choice but to listen. 

Works Cited

Brudney, Allie. “CAL Finds Evidence of Child Labor on Rainforest Alliance Certified Farms.” Corporate Accountability Lab, 25 Oct. 2021, corpaccountabilitylab.org/calblog/2021/10/25/cal-finds-evidence-of-child-labor-on-rainforest-alliance-certified-farms. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Bureau of International Labor Affairs. “Child Labor in the Production of Cocoa.” DOL, 2024, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/our-work/child-forced-labor-trafficking/child-labor-cocoa. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

“Cocoa for Generations | Mars, Incorporated.” MARS, 2024, www.mars.com/sustainability-plan/cocoa-for-generations. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Corporate Accountability Lab. “Empty Promises: The Failure of Voluntary Corporate Social Responsibility Initiatives to Improve Farmer Incomes in the Ivorian Cocoa Sector.” Square Space, July 2019, static1.squarespace.com/static/5810dda3e3df28ce37b58357/t/5d321076f1125e0001ac51ab/1563562117949/Empty_Promises_2019.pdf. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

“Harkin Engel Protocol.” ICI Cocoa Initiative, Sept. 2001, www.cocoainitiative.org/knowledge-hub/resources/harkin-engel-protocol. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Klein, Naomi. No Logo. BUR, 2018. 

“Nestle Cocoa Plan.” Nestlé Cocoa Plan, 2024, www.nestlecocoaplan.com/. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Payson Center for International Development and Technology Transfer. “Final Report – Oversight of Cocoa Industry in Ghana and Ivory Coast.” Issuu, 11 Apr. 2011, issuu.com/stevebutton/docs/tulane_final_report.  Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Payson Center for International Development and Technology Transfer. “Final Report: Survey Research on Child Labor in West African Cocoa Growing Areas.” DOL, 30 July 2015, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/final-report-survey-research-child-labor-west-african-cocoa-growing-areas. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

“PROCEEDINGS AND DEBATES OF THE 107th CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION.” Congress.Gov, 28 June 2001, www.congress.gov/crec/2001/06/28/CREC-2001-06-28.pdf Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Sadhu, Santadarshan, et al. “NORC Final Report: Assessing Progress in Reducing Child Labor in Cocoa Production in Cocoa Growing Areas of Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana.” NORC, Oct. 2020, https://www.norc.org/content/dam/norc-org/documents/standard-projects-pdf/NORC%202020%20Cocoa%20Report_English.pdf Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Tejada Chavez, Angela. “Visible Progress: Hershey’s Cocoa for Good Strategy.” The Hershey Company, 2024, www.thehersheycompany.com/en_us/home/newsroom/blog/going-beyond-fair-trade-with-hersheys-sustainable-cocoa-strategy.html Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

“The Bangladesh Accord on Fire and Building Safety.” The Bangladesh Accord, bangladeshaccord.org/. Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.

Whoriskey, Peter, and Rachel Siegel. “Hershey, Nestle and Mars Broke Their Pledges to End Child Labor …” The Washington Post, 5 June 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/business/hershey-nestle-mars-chocolate-child-labor-west-africa/. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Whoriskey, Peter. “Utz Finds Alarming Problems at Four Cocoa-Certifying Firms – The …” The Washington Post, 23 Oct. 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/10/23/chocolate-companies-say-their-cocoa-is-certified-some-farms-use-child-labor-thousands-are-protected-forests/. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Ethical Perspectives on the Rights of Disabled People and Animals: A Comparative Analysis of Eva Kittay and Peter Singer

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by Eli Olevsky, May 3, 2023

The rights of animals and those of disabled people have long been an area of ethical discussion. While some argue that humans have an ethical duty to respect and safeguard the interests of the disabled and animals, others contend that human interests must always come first and resort to the degradation of others. Eva Kittay and Peter Singer have contributed significantly to this debate as philosophers. Kittay emphasizes the need to prioritize people with disabilities, while Singer advocates for a level playing field between the rights of humans and the rights of animals. Both positions have their own set of merits, but also each contains some controversial elements I will discuss in this essay. Ultimately, Kittay’s argument is more reasonable and morally comprehensible than Singer’s ethically questionable argument because it warrants a more accepting environment in which all living things are equally loved and appreciated. 

 Kittay argues that part of the job of a mother of a disabled child is to ensure that they are cared for. She asserts, “For her, socialization for acceptance means that you have both to help the child make her way in the world given her disabilities and to help shape a world that will accept her.” (Kittay 398). Kittay believes that mothers have this responsibility because disabled children deserve this kind of care and to be seen by the world as valued. This is apparent in her distress of opposing views, stating, “What are the specific challenges facing someone in my position? There are essentially two. The first is to overcome the anger and revulsion that one feels when encountering the view that one’s disabled child–or child with a particular disability–is less worthy of dignity, of life, of concern or justice than others.”  (Kittay 398-399). Her perspective challenges the ableist assumption that those with disabilities are less valuable or worthy of consideration than their non-disabled counterparts. The importance of this particular position of Kittay’s is necessary to understand the virtuous aspect of her argument. 

A potential critique of Kittay is her biased focus on the value of a disabled person as more valuable than a nonhuman. She portrays this perspective when sharing how she feels about her child being compared to animals, saying, “For a mother of a severely cognitively impaired child, the impact of such an argument is devastating. How can I begin to tell you what it feels like to read texts in which one’s child is compared…how corrosive those comparisons are, how they mock those relationships that affirm who we are and why we care?”(Kittay 397). However, Kittay clarifies she does indeed love animals, although still believing they cannot be compared to children, stating, “I am no stranger to a beloved animal. I have had dogs I have loved, dogs I have mourned for. But as dog lovers who become parents, can tell you, much as we adore our hounds…there is also no comparison when that child has intellectual disabilities.” (Kittay 397). This humanizes Kittay’s perspective of animals, and although she does not see them as deserving of the same love as a disabled child, I believe it is understandable why she feels this way as no mother would ever want their child compared to an animal, which has been used as a derogatory insult for millennia. Kittay’s stance may not be morally perfect in an ideal world that places equal importance on every living thing. Still, it is far closer to perfection when compared to Singer’s general position. 

Peter Singer offers a different take on the ethical nature of personhood than Eva Kittay. Singer bases his notion of morality towards sentient beings on what is known as “The principle of equality,” which is “not a description of an alleged actual equality among humans: it is a prescription of how we should treat human beings.” (Singer 33). He uses this principle and extends its validity past just human beings, reasoning, “It is an implication of this principle of equality that our concern for others and our readiness to consider their interests ought not to depend on what they are like or what abilities they may possess…But the basic element–the taking into account of the interests of the being, whatever those interests may be–must, according to the principle of equality, be extended to all beings, black or white, masculine or feminine, human or nonhuman.” (Singer 34). Singer is challenging traditional views on nonhuman animals that believe humans possessing rationality or consciousness gives them special moral status. According to him, his view ignores sentience as a primary characteristic of moral consideration and argues that simply being able to feel is the only necessity for equality. Singer’s perspective on sentience as a limiting factor for the basis of morality has far-reaching ramifications for how we treat nonhuman animals. Moreover, Singer believes pleasure and pain experiences are morally significant when they affect an animal’s capacity for experiencing pleasure or pain and not just human beings. He asserts, “The capacity for suffering and enjoyment is a prerequisite for having interests at all, a condition that must be satisfied before we can speak of interests in any meaningful way” (Singer 37). He clarifies this statement to include nonhumans, stating, “A stone does not have interests because it cannot suffer. Nothing that we can do to it could possibly make any difference to its welfare. The capacity for suffering and enjoyment is, however, not only necessary, but also sufficient for us to say that a being has interests–at an absolute minimum, an interest in not suffering. A mouse, for example, does have an interest in not being kicked along the road, because it will suffer if it is.” (Singer 37). Similarly to Kittay, the sentiments in Singer’s position display some respectable attributes of his overall view, such as his support for equality and his belief that all living things that feel pain (or have an interest in not feeling pain) are equally morally deserving of care and consideration. However, the troubling sides of his argument, particularly his justification of murder, reveal the paradoxical nature of his view toward disabled people. 

Singer’s position on disability remains concerning for many individuals, including myself. Despite arguing for equality between humans and nonhumans, he seems to believe that sentient beings can have unequal worth, stating, “I conclude, then, that a rejection of speciesism does not imply that all lives are of equal worth” (Singer 54). Singer then justifies the killing of disabled people, first when choosing between disabled people and “normal” human beings and then when choosing between disabled people and nonhumans. “Since pain is pain, whatever other capacities, beyond the capacity to feel pain, the being may have–these capacities are relevant to the question of taking life. It is not arbitrary to hold that the life of a self-aware being, capable of abstract thought, of planning for the future, of complex acts of communication, and so on, is more valuable than the life of a being without these capacities…if we had to choose to save the life of a normal human being or an intellectually disabled human being, we would probably choose to save the life of a normal human being…the same is true when we consider other species…if we have to choose between the life of a human being and the life of another animal we should choose to save the life of the human, but there may be special cases in which the reverse holds true because the human being in question does not have the capacities of a normal human being” (Singer 54-55). From this, we can understand and gather Singer’s belief that when comparing a disabled person to an animal, it is moral to kill the disabled person because they are apparently of less value than the nonhuman. 

Although I can understand and empathize with Kittay’s perspective stemming from the want for her child to be loved and for the world to love her child, it is much harder for me to understand Singer’s purpose for justifying the killing of disabled people. I cannot even understand the purpose of including an argument that revolves around deciding to kill a disabled person, and much less so in an essay that was primarily about the advocacy for the equality of all sentient beings. Singer spent the majority of Chapter 1 arguing how racism, sexism, and speciesism have no place in society because they involve claiming superiority for a certain group of humans solely due to some difference in a characteristic, “Racists violate the principle of equality by giving greater weight to the interests of members of their own race when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of another race. Sexists violate the principle of equality by favoring the interests of their own sex. Similarly, speciesists allow the interests of their own species to override the greater interests of members of other species.” (Singer 38-39). Despite this, he ended his essay with an argument justifying killing disabled people. I believe this is in poor taste, and it completely dismisses what his essay worked so hard to argue, the point that equality is solely based on the interests of the being and extends to all beings, human and nonhuman. Morally, this should include disabled people as well. Because Singer’s argument so clearly does not, this is why Kittay’s argument is by far the more intelligible and morally acceptable perspective. Conclusively, I believe that Singer fails to assume his role as “moral philosopher,” and as a result, a more appropriate title for him would be “hypocrite.”

Works Cited 

Singer, Peter, 1946-. 19771975. Animal Liberation. New York, Avon Books. 

Kittay, Eva Feder. “THE PERSONAL IS PHILOSOPHICAL IS POLITICAL: A PHILOSOPHER AND MOTHER OF A COGNITIVELY DISABLED PERSON SENDS NOTES FROM THE BATTLEFIELD.” Metaphilosophy 40, no. 3–4 (July 1, 2009): 606–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2009.01600.x.